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Graduated driver licensing (GDL) in the United States in 2016: A literature review and commentary
Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
December 2017
This is the sixth in a series of reviews of research on graduated driver licensing (GDL) published in the Journal of Safety Research, the present review covering the period mid-2012 through 2016. In the two decades since GDL programs began to be introduced on a widespread basis in the United States, a vast amount of research has been published. The current review discusses recent research and the present state of knowledge on the following topics: characteristics of the novice driver population; effects of GDL on crashes for ages 16–19; the learner and intermediate periods; night and passenger restrictions; cellphone laws; GDL for older novices; enforcement of GDL rules; and programs attempting to influence GDL compliance and safe driving practices in general. GDL stands out as a successful policy for reducing teen driver crashes and is worth building on to extend its benefits. Strengthening existing GDL programs has the most potential for producing further crash reductions.
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History and current status of state graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws in the United States
Williams, Allan F.; McCartt, Anne T.; Sims, Laurel B.
Journal of Safety Research
February 2016
Introduction: The objective of this study is to describe changes in teenage driver licensing policies in the United States during the past two decades with the introduction of graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs, assess GDL laws currently in place, and discuss the possibilities and likely consequences of further changes.
Methods: The history of laws introducing and amending GDL programs was tracked, based on records maintained by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). Counts of states included the District of Columbia.
Results: A few states had elements of GDL prior to the mid-1990s, and between 1996 and 2006 all other states adopted a learner period of 2 months or more, a minimum supervised practice hours requirement for the learner period, or a night or passenger restriction once initially licensed. All but seven states have upgraded their original laws one or more times. Very few states weakened their laws, usually in minor ways. In 158 instances, minimum learner periods, minimum practice hour requirements, or night or passenger restrictions were added or strengthened. Fifteen states raised the minimum age for a license allowing any unsupervised driving.
Conclusion: GDL policies have reduced teenage driver crashes. Most states now have at least minimum requirements for basic GDL features, although there is substantial opportunity for strengthening existing policies. Additional upgrades would result in further crash reductions, but very few have been made in recent years.
Practical applications: Guidelines for maximizing the crash reduction potential of GDL programs are available, based on the experience of U.S. states, other countries with GDL programs, and the evaluation literature in regard to GDL components.
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Tracking progress in teenage driver crash risk in the United States since the advent of graduated driver licensing programs
McCartt, Anne T.; Teoh, Eric R.
Journal of Safety Research
June 2015
Introduction: This study examined U.S. teenagers' crash rates since 1996, when the first graduated driver licensing (GDL) program in the United State was implemented.
Methods: Passenger vehicle driver crash involvement rates for 16–19 and 30–59 (middle-aged) year-olds were examined, using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, National Automotive Sampling System General Estimates System, Census Bureau, and National Household Travel Surveys.
Results: Per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2012 were lower for 16 year-olds than for middle-aged drivers but older teenagers' rates were higher. Mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2008 were higher for teenagers than for middle-aged drivers and higher for 16–17 year-olds than for older teenagers. In 1996–2012, teenagers' per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates declined sharply, especially for 16–17 year-olds, and more so than for middle-aged drivers. Substantial declines also occurred in teenagers' mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates from 1995–96 to 2008, generally more so than for middle-aged drivers. Regarding factors in fatal crashes in 1996 and 2012, proportions of young teenagers' crashes occurring at night and with multiple teenage passengers declined, more so than among older teenagers and middle-aged drivers. The proportion of fatally injured drivers who had been drinking declined for teenagers but changed little for middle-aged drivers. Improvements were not apparent in rates of driver errors or speeding among teenage drivers in fatal crashes.
Conclusions: Teenage drivers' crash risk dropped during the period of implementation of GDL laws, especially fatal crash types targeted by GDL. However, teenagers' crash risk remains high, and important crash factors remain unaddressed by GDL.
Practical applications: Although this study was not designed to examine the role of GDL, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws. More gains are achievable if states strengthen their laws.
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Views of New Jersey teenagers about their state’s policies for beginning drivers
Williams, Allan F.; McCartt, Anne T.
Journal of Safety Research
February 2014
Background: Three New Jersey licensing policies are unique in the United States. They are: (a) minimum licensing age of 17; (b) applying full graduated driver licensing (GDL) rules to beginners younger than 21; and (c) requiring license status decals on vehicle plates of drivers in GDL.
Methods: New Jersey 17–19 year-olds were surveyed by telephone and online.
Results: Eighty-four percent approved licensing at 17; 77% approved applying GDL to older novices; 23% approved the decal policy. Probationary licensees ages 18–19 were more likely than 17 year-olds to have multiple nighttime restriction violations in the past month. There were no age group differences in passenger restriction violations.
Discussion: All three policies have been considered in other states. Views of teenagers directly affected by the policies can be taken into account in considering their implementation.
Practical applications: Views of licensing policies by affected teenagers indicate potential support or obstacles to their adoption in other states.
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Rounding the next curve on the road toward reducing teen drivers’ crash risk (editorial)
McCartt, Anne T.
Journal of Adolescent Health
July 2013
In the United States, teenagers drive less than all but the oldest people, but their youthfulness and driving inexperience result in disproportionately high crash rates. However, teenagers’ crash risk is lower than it used to be, and graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws have been instrumental. GDL phases in driving privileges as beginners mature and gain skills by strengthening the learner phase and adding an intermediate license before full licensure that restricts unsupervised driving in situations known to be risky.
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New Jersey's license plate decal requirement for graduated driver licenses: attitudes of parents and teenagers, observed decal use, and citations for teenage driving violations
McCartt, Anne T.; Oesch, Nathan J.; Williams, Allan F.; Powell, Tara C.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
February 2013
Objectives: On May 1, 2010, New Jersey implemented a law requiring teenagers with learner’s permits or probationary licenses to display reflective decals on the front and rear license plates when they drive. The current study examined attitudes of parents and teenagers toward this requirement, use of decals, and reported violations and police enforcement of the graduated driver license law.
Method: Statewide telephone surveys of representative samples of parents and teenagers were conducted in February to April 2010 and March to June 2011. Use of decals among probationary license holders was observed at 4 high schools in fall 2010 and in spring 2011 and hand-out surveys were distributed. Data on citations issued for violations of the graduated driver license law were obtained.
Results: When interviewed in spring 2011, a large majority of parents of probationary license holders, parents of learner’s permit holders, and teenagers with probationary licenses disapproved of decals for probationary licenses. About two thirds of both sets of parents and about half of teenagers disapproved of decals for learner’s permits. Support for decals for both license types declined significantly from 2010 to 2011. For parents and teenagers alike, opposition was mainly attributed to concern about identifying and/or targeting teenage drivers by other drivers, predators, or police. In 2011, 77 percent of parents of probationary license holders said that their teenagers had decals for the vehicles driven most often; 46 percent said their teenagers always used decals. Fifty-six percent of parents of learner’s permit holders said that their teenagers had decals for the vehicles driven most often; 37 percent said that their teenagers always used decals. Teenagers’ reported violations of license restrictions either increased or were similar in 2011 compared to 2010. Observed rates of decal use by probationary license holders at high schools in spring 2011 ranged from 24 to 64 percent. The number of statewide citations for teenage licensing law violations doubled in the year after the decal requirement took effect compared to the prior year. Excluding decal violations, citations increased by 52 percent.
Conclusions: Early examination of New Jersey’s decal requirement found widespread opposition, primarily due to concerns about identifying/targeting teenage drivers, though first-hand reports of such incidents were very rare. Many teenagers do not use the decals. Increased issuance of citations for violations of the teenage licensing lawsuggests that decals are facilitating police enforcement. However, based on teenagers’ self-reports, the requirement does not appear to have achieved the ultimate goal of increased compliance.
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Licensing age issues: deliberations from a workshop devoted to this topic
Williams, Allan F.; McCartt, Anne T.; Mayhew, Daniel R.; Watson, Barry
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
February 2013
Objective: To highlight the issues and discuss the research evidence regarding safety, mobility, and other consequences of different licensing ages.
Methods: Information included is based on presentations and discussions at a 1-day workshop on licensing age issues and a review and synthesis of the international literature.
Results: The literature indicates that higher licensing ages are associated with safety bene ts. There is an associated mobility loss, more likely to be an issue in rural states. Legislative attempts to raise the minimum age for independent driving in the United States — for example, from 16 to 17 — have been resisted, although in some states the age has been raised indirectly through graduated driver licensing (GDL) policies.
Conclusions: Jurisdictions can achieve reductions in teenage crashes by raising the licensing age. This can be done directly or indirectly by strengthening GDL systems, in particular extending the minimum length of the learner period.
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Strengthening driver licensing systems for teenaged drivers (editorial)
McCartt, Anne T.; Teoh, Eric R.
Journal of the American Medical Association
September 14, 2011
A large body of evidence has found that graduated driver licensing is associated with significantly lower crash rates of young teenaged drivers. Additional crash reductions in many states likely could be achieved through strengthening current graduated driver licensing programs. Whether and how graduated driver licensing has affected older teenagers and whether these programs should be extended to include older teenagers merit further study.
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Views of parents of teenagers about licensing policies: a national survey
Williams, Allan F.; Braitman, Keli A.; McCartt, Anne T.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
January 2011
Objective: During the past two decades, many changes in licensing policies have been made in U.S. states, and more are being discussed. The views of parents of teenagers can inform debates about what licensing provisions should be considered and how well they will be received. The objective was to obtain the views of a nationally representative sample of parents of teenagers on a wide range of licensing practices.
Methods: Parents were interviewed via the internet in early 2010. Participants were 1226 parents of 15- to 18-year-olds drawn from a nationally representative panel of U.S. households recruited using probability-based sampling. The panel included cell phone-only households, and Internet access was provided to those without it. Weighting procedures were applied to ensure that participants reflect the national population.
Results: Parents generally favored licensing policies that are as strong as or stronger than exist in any U.S. jurisdiction, including higher permit and licensing ages, long learner periods with high practice hour requirements, plus strong and long-lasting night and passenger restrictions. The majority of parents approved of tougher driving tests, including a test to graduate to full license status (75%), enhanced penalties for traffic violations (94%) and violations of graduated licensing restrictions (78%), cell phone and texting bans (96-98%), and, to a somewhat lesser extent, license status identifiers (decals) on vehicles (65%) and the application of graduated licensing rules to novice drivers 18 and older (61%). Parents in the Northeast were significantly more supportive of older learner's permit and restricted driving ages than parents in other regions, and parents in the West were more supportive of strong passenger restrictions.
Conclusions: Results suggest that many parents will support comprehensive licensing policies. Many of these policies are known to reduce teenage crash involvement. For others, research evidence of their effects is lacking and needs to be established.
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Graduated licensing laws and fatal crashes of teenage drivers: a national study
McCartt, Anne T.; Teoh, Eric R.; Fields, Michele; Braitman, Keli A.; Hellinga, Laurie A.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
June 2010
Objectives: The objective of the current study was to quantify the effects of the strength of US state graduated driver licensing laws and specific licensing components on the rate of teenage driver fatal crash involvements per 100,000 teenagers during 1996-2007. The strengths of state laws were rated good, fair, marginal, or poor based on a system developed previously by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.
Methods: Analysis was based on quarterly counts of drivers involved in fatal crashes. Associations of overall ratings and individual licensing components with teenage crash rates were evaluated using Poisson regression, with the corresponding fatal crash rate for drivers ages 30-59 controlling for state- or time-dependent influences on crash rates unrelated to graduated licensing laws.
Results: Compared with licensing laws rated poor, laws rated good were associated with 30 percent lower fatal crash rates among 15- to 17-year-olds. Laws rated fair yielded fatal crash rates 11 percent lower. The longer the permit age was delayed, or the longer the licensing age was delayed, the lower the estimated fatal crash rates among 15- to 17-year-olds. Stronger nighttime restrictions were associated with larger reductions, and reductions were larger for laws limiting teenage passengers to zero or one than laws allowing two or more teenage passengers or laws without passenger restrictions. After the effects of any related delay in licensure were accounted for, an increase in the minimum learner's permit holding period showed no association with fatal crash rates. An increase in required practice driving hours did not appear to have an independent association with fatal crash rates.
Conclusions: Graduated licensing laws that include strong nighttime and passenger restrictions and laws that delay the learner's permit age and licensing age are associated with lower teenage fatal crash rates. States that adopt such laws can expect to achieve substantial reductions in crash deaths.
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Graduated licensing laws and fatal crashes of teenage drivers: a national study
McCartt, Anne T.; Teoh, Eric R.; Fields, Michele; Braitman, Keli A.; Hellinga, Laurie A.
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
June 2010
This is an Institute-produced PDF of the research paper following peer review. The definitive version was published in Traffic Injury Prevention, June 2010, vol. 11, no. 3, pp 240-248, and is available online at http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15389580903578854
Objectives: The objective of the current study was to quantify the effects of the strength of US state graduated driver licensing laws and specific licensing components on the rate of teenage driver fatal crash involvements per 100,000 teenagers during 1996-2007. The strengths of state laws were rated good, fair, marginal, or poor based on a system developed previously by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.
Methods: Analysis was based on quarterly counts of drivers involved in fatal crashes. Associations of overall ratings and individual licensing components with teenage crash rates were evaluated using Poisson regression, with the corresponding fatal crash rate for drivers ages 30-59 controlling for state- or time-dependent influences on crash rates unrelated to graduated licensing laws.
Results: Compared with licensing laws rated poor, laws rated good were associated with 30 percent lower fatal crash rates among 15- to 17-year-olds. Laws rated fair yielded fatal crash rates 11 percent lower. The longer the permit age was delayed, or the longer the licensing age was delayed, the lower the estimated fatal crash rates among 15- to 17-year-olds. Stronger nighttime restrictions were associated with larger reductions, and reductions were larger for laws limiting teenage passengers to zero or one than laws allowing two or more teenage passengers or laws without passenger restrictions. After the effects of any related delay in licensure were accounted for, an increase in the minimum learner's permit holding period showed no association with fatal crash rates. An increase in required practice driving hours did not appear to have an independent association with fatal crash rates.
Conclusions: Graduated licensing laws that include strong nighttime and passenger restrictions and laws that delay the learner's permit age and licensing age are associated with lower teenage fatal crash rates. States that adopt such laws can expect to achieve substantial reductions in crash deaths.
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Graduated driver licensing laws and insurance collision claim frequencies of teenage drivers
Trempel, Rebecca E.
Highway Loss Data Institute
November 2009
Objectives: This study examined the effect of different graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws on collision claim frequencies of licensed and insured teenage drivers.
Method: Automobile insurance collision claim frequencies were computed by year (1996-2008) and state for drivers ages 16-19. Poisson regression models were used to estimate the effect of GDL laws on claim frequencies. The claim frequency for drivers ages 35-55 was used as a covariate to control for non-GDL state and year variation in motor vehicle crashes.
Results: Compared with GDL laws rated poor, laws rated good reduced collision claim frequencies of 16 year-olds by an estimated 20 percent. Laws rated fair and marginal reduced claim frequencies by 15 and 10 percent, respectively. Claim frequencies also were reduced for older teenage drivers, although to a smaller extent. Analyses of GDL components showed increasing license age, requiring practice driving, restricting passengers to one or fewer, and a strong nighttime driving restriction significantly reduced claim frequencies of 16-year-old drivers.
Conclusions: GDL laws are reducing collision claim frequencies of young drivers, and stronger laws are having larger effects.
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Short-term effects of a teenage driver cell phone restriction
Foss, Robert D.; Goodwin, Arthur H.; McCartt, Anne T.; Hellinga, Laurie A.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
May 2009
On December 1, 2006, North Carolina began prohibiting use of any mobile communication device by drivers younger than 18. The current study examined the effects of the law on teenage drivers' cell phone use. Teenage drivers were observed at high schools in North Carolina 1-2 months before and approximately 5 months after the law took effect. The proportion of teenagers using cell phones did not change significantly (11.0% before the law took effect, 11.8% after). Cell phone use among teenage drivers at high schools in South Carolina, an adjacent state without a teenage driver phone ban, was stable at about 13%. Interviews were conducted with parents and teenagers in North Carolina both before and after the law took effect. In post-law interviews, teenagers were more likely than parents to say they knew about the cell phone restriction (64% vs. 39%), but support for the ban was greater among parents (95% vs. 74%). Only 22% of teenagers and 13% of parents believed the law was being enforced fairly often or a lot. Although the proportion of teenagers who reported using phones while driving declined somewhat following the law, about half admitted they used their phones, if they had driven, on the day prior to the interview. Overall, the findings suggest that North Carolina's cell phone restriction had little to no effect on teenage drivers' use of cell phones shortly after the law took effect.
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Licensing age and teenage driver crashes: a review of the evidence
Williams, Allan F.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
February 2009
Objectives: To discuss the variation in licensing ages around the world and summarize what is known about the effects of differing age limits.
Methods: Review of the international literature on the rationale for establishing licensing ages, debates about the justification for higher or lower minimum ages, safety effects of higher minimums, mobility consequences, public opinion, and recent attempts to raise licensing ages.
Results: Minimum licensing ages vary from 14 to 18 years old. Early licensing countries have reduced the young driver problem through graduated licensing systems, but consideration is now being given to increasing the licensing age. The available evidence indicates that this would further reduce young driver crashes. There are mobility consequences that are difficult to quantify. In New Jersey, which has long been the one U.S. state with a 17-year-old licensing age, the delay in licensing appears to have minimal effects on lifestyles of 16-year-olds. Public opinion in the United States favors licensing ages higher than 16.
Conclusions: In debates about higher licensing ages, jurisdictions are deciding how they want to balance safety and mobility. From a safety standpoint, New Jersey, with its combination of higher licensing age and strong graduated licensing provisions, is the model.
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Age of licensure and monitoring teenagers' driving: survey of parents of novice teenage drivers
McCartt, Anne T.; Hellinga, Laurie A.; Haire, Emily R.
Journal of Safety Research
2007
Objective: To assess parental decision making regarding the timing of teenagers initiating driving and monitoring teenagers' driving after licensure.
Methods: About 300 parents were interviewed during spring 2006 in Minnesota, North Carolina, and Rhode Island, states with varying licensing provisions, while teenagers took their first on-road driving tests.
Results: States' differences in ages of obtaining learner's permits and licenses reflected different licensing laws, but most teenagers obtained permits and took road tests within the first few months after they became eligible. Common reasons for delaying obtaining permits were fulfilling driver education requirements and lack of readiness/immaturity. Insufficient practice driving most often delayed licensure. Among the parents interviewed, 33-49% believed the minimum licensure age should be 17 or older. Almost all parents planned to supervise teenagers' driving after licensure, and most wanted to know about speeding or distractions. When asked about in-vehicle devices to monitor teenagers' driving, 37-59% of parents had heard of them. Parents were least interested in using video cameras and about equally interested in computer chips and cell-phone-based GPS systems. Disinterest in monitoring devices most often was attributed to trusting teenagers or respecting their privacy.
Conclusions: Licensing laws influence ages of initiating driving. Although many parents support licensing at 17 or older - higher than in all but one state - most teenagers initiate driving soon after reaching the minimum age. Parents plan to supervise teenagers' driving, and many say they are open to using in-vehicle monitoring devices.
Impact on industry: Many parents support a minimum licensing age of 17 or older and would consider in-vehicle devices to extend their supervision of teenager's driving.
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Choice of teenagers' vehicles and views on vehicle safety: survey of parents of novice teenage drivers
Hellinga, Laurie A.; McCartt, Anne T.; Haire, Emily R.
Journal of Safety Research
2007
Objective: To examine parental decisions about vehicles driven by teenagers and parental knowledge of vehicle safety.
Methods: About 300 parents were interviewed during spring 2006 in Minnesota, North Carolina, and Rhode Island while teenagers took their first on-road driving tests.
Results: Fewer than half of parents surveyed said teenagers would be the primary drivers of the chosen vehicles. Parents most often cited safety, existing family vehicle, and reliability when explaining the choices for their teenagers' vehicles. About half of the vehicles intended for teenagers were small/mini/sports cars, pickups, or SUVs - vehicles considered less safe for teenagers than midsize/large cars or minivans. A large majority of vehicles were 2001 models or earlier. Vehicles purchased in anticipation of adding a new driver to the family were more likely to be the sizes/types considered less safe than vehicles already owned. Few parents insisted on side airbags or electronic stability control, despite strong evidence of their safety benefits. Even when asked to identify ideal vehicles for their teenagers to drive, about half of parents identified less safe vehicle sizes/types. Most parents knew that midsize/large vehicles are safer than small vehicles, and at least half of parents said SUVs and pickups are not safe for teenage drivers, citing instability.
Conclusions: The majority of parents understood some of the important criteria for choosing safe vehicles for their teenagers. However, parents actually selected many vehicles for teenagers that provide inferior crash protection.
Impact on industry: Vehicle safety varies substantially by vehicle size, type, and safety features. Many teenagers are driving inferior vehicles in terms of crashworthiness and crash avoidance.
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Evaluation of California's graduated licensing system
Zwicker, Thomas J.; Williams, Allan F.; Chaudhary, Neil K.; Farmer, Charles M.
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
August 2006
Objective: Evaluations of several state graduated licensing programs have indicated reductions in injury and fatal crashes involving 16-year-old drivers. However, results of evaluations of California?s July 1, 1998 graduated licensing law have been mixed, with one study showing no overall reduction in crashes. The present study attempted to clarify the effects of California?s law.
Methods: Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average time series analysis was used to account for pre-existing downward trends and seasonality in monthly 16-year-old driver involvements in injury or fatal crashes per 10,000 population, based on 1995-2003 data. Monthly 24-55-year-old driver involvements in injury/fatal crashes per 10,000 population were used as an additional check for statewide trends.
Results: Implementation of the graduated licensing law resulted in an estimated 23 percent reduction in 16-year-old driver injury and fatal crash involvements. An estimated 8,052 16-year-old driver involvements in injury and fatal crashes were prevented in the 66 months following the law?s implementation. Sixteen-year-old driver involvements in injury and fatal crashes with injured teenage passengers declined by an estimated 38 percent, or 3,953 fewer crash involvements. Nighttime and daytime 16-year-old driver involvements in injury and fatal crashes were reduced by similar amounts.
Conclusions: California?s graduated licensing law has reduced 16-year-old driver involvements in crashes. The results differ from those of Masten and Hagge (2003) who found no overall effects for 16 year-olds. Their modeling process was overly restrictive and did not adequately account for seasonal and other systematic nonlinear periodic trends in injury and fatal crashes.
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Encouraging compliance with graduated driver licensing restrictions
Goodwin, Arthur H.; Wells, JoAnn K.; Foss, Robert D.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
2006
Although graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs have reduced the high crash rates for 16- and 17-year-old drivers, research suggests that some teenagers fail to comply with restrictions on nighttime driving and carrying passengers. A program to encourage compliance with GDL restrictions and seat belt requirements was implemented in Guilford County, North Carolina. The program combined increased enforcement with a multi-faceted publicity campaign drawing attention to the enforcement activity. A comparison community was studied to assess whether changes over time could be reasonably attributed to the program. Several measures indicate that greater enforcement did occur and that teenagers perceived the increase. However, self-reported data and direct observations of young drivers in the intervention and comparison communities showed the program resulted in only modest changes in compliance with GDL restrictions. The program put in place the mechanisms known to produce changes in driver behavior, but these may have been insufficient to alter the behavior of the minority of teens (and parents) who were not already complying with restrictions. Many teenagers in Guilford County who are violating restrictions may be persistent non-compliers whose behavior is more difficult to change. However, the modest changes in young driver behavior plus the clear changes in both actual and perceived enforcement suggest that high visibility enforcement programs merit further use and evaluation in other communities, particularly those where compliance with GDL provisions is lower.
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Commentary: Next steps for graduated licensing
Williams, Allan F.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
September 2005
Every motorized country in the world has a young driver problem. In the United States, licensing practices in place for most of the 20th century exacerbated the problem. Licensing ages around the world vary from 15 to 18, for example, but in the United States they are at the low end of this range. There also has been a quick and easy path to licensure, with minimal requirements and easy tests (Williams et al., 1996). Thus until recent years there was little attempt to address the two main factors creating the problem: inexperience and youthful age. The result was a young driver problem of epidemic proportions (Williams, 1996).
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The fall and rise of graduated licensing in North America
Williams, Allan F.
Transportation Research E-Circular E-C072
January 2005
Frustration arises when sound research indicates that a certain measure reduces motor vehicle crashes or injuries but the measure is not widely implemented. This is especially so when one can point to measures not supported by research that are mainstays of society's approach to the highway safety problem, for example, education and publicity campaigns alone or high school driver education. In a more perfect world, only science-based policies would be implemented and maintained. Researchers would conduct high-quality research, advocates would market the findings, and policy makers would enact appropriate legislation. Things do not work quite that way, so this paper discusses the ways in which policies do get implemented and how this process might be influenced. What are the barriers to adopting science-based policies, and what are the elements that lead to their successful adoption? This paper covers a success story--the widespread adoption of graduated licensing--and what might be learned from it that could assist in future efforts to convert research into policy.
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Tennessee’s novice driver safety project: a program to increase parental involvement
Chaudhary, Neil K.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Herbel, Susan B.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
December 2004
Graduated licensing has been implemented in many U.S. states to reduce teenage driver crash involvement. The goal is to introduce teenagers gradually to driving before allowing full, unrestricted licensure. Tennessee, one of the states that introduced graduated licensing, implemented a program to influence both driving by teenagers during the learner stage and restrictions imposed by parents after licensure. In addition to a standard welcome letter, booklets and reminder cards were mailed to parents of teenagers who had just obtained their learner's permits. The booklets and cards were designed to assist parents in becoming more actively involved in their children's driving experiences. The effects of three different approaches (welcome letter only, letter plus booklet, and letter plus booklet plus reminder cards) on parental involvement, teenage crashes, and teenage citations were assessed based on telephone interviews with parents. Although the parents said the booklets and reminder cards were helpful and should continue to be sent to other parents, there were no discernible effects on teenage practice driving and reported parental involvement during the learner stage. Nor was there any measurable influence on restrictions imposed by parents after licensure. It is unknown whether the standard welcome letter affected parental involvement, but overall supervised driving exceeded the state requirements by a substantial margin.
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Graduated driver licensing restrictions: awareness, compliance, and enforcement in North Carolina
Goodwin, Arthur H.; Foss, Robert D.
Journal of Safety Research
November 2004
Problem: This study examined the extent to which critical restrictions in North Carolina's graduated driver licensing (GDL) system are known, adhered to, and enforced.
Method: Teenagers and their parents were recruited as they applied for either an intermediate or full license at 1 of 23 licensing offices. Telephone interviews were conducted with 900 teenagers and their parents.
Results: Awareness of North Carolina's night and passenger restrictions was very high among both parents and teenagers. Ten percent of teenagers reported violating the night restriction without their parents' knowledge, and 15% had done so with their parents' approval. Only 4% of parents reported allowing their teenagers to drive with more than one teenage passenger, but 19% of teenagers reported that they were allowed to do this. Violations of the passenger restriction without parental knowledge were more common than violations of the night restriction (22% vs. 10%, respectively). Among teenagers who violated restrictions without their parents' knowledge, most reported doing so only once or a few times. Teenagers expressed little concern about detection, although a majority reported driving more carefully to avoid police notice. Neither parents nor teenagers knew much about police enforcement of GDL restrictions. To obtain a sense of the views of law enforcement officers, informal interviews were conducted with 20 officers from five diverse communities and the state highway patrol. These officers were highly supportive of GDL but unfamiliar with many of the specific provisions. Moreover, enforcement of GDL restrictions did not appear to be a high priority.
Impact on industry: There is a need to increase the belief among teens (and parents) that police are enforcing GDL restrictions in their community; law enforcement participation in well-publicized traffic safety enforcement efforts would likely produce this result.
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Graduated licensing: a blueprint for North America
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS); Traffic Injury Research Foundation
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
August 2004
In the 58 North American jurisdictions where versions of graduated licensing have been enacted, significant reductions in collisions and injuries are anticipated. However, even more substantial reductions would be possible if jurisdictions met all the recommendations for a graduated system. In an optimal system, young beginners would not start until age 16, spend at least 6 months in a learner’s stage with parents having to certify at least 30-50 hours of practice, enter an initial license stage with restrictions on unsupervised nighttime driving starting at 9 or 10 p.m., and transporting teenage passengers, both lasting for at least 6 months, and graduation to an unrestricted license should not be permitted until at least age 18.
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Methods to reduce traffic crashes involving deer: what works and what does not
Hedlund, James H.; Curtis, Paul D.; Curtis, Gwen; Williams, Allan F.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
June 2004
More than 1.5 million traffic crashes involving deer, producing at least $1.1 billion in vehicle damage and about 150 fatalities, are estimated to occur annually in the United States. Deer-related crashes are increasing as both deer populations and vehicular travel increase. Many methods have been used in attempts to reduce deer crashes, often with little scientific foundation and limited evaluation. This article summarizes the methods and reviews the evidence of their effectiveness and the situations in which each may be useful. The only widely accepted method with solid evidence of effectiveness is well-designed and maintained fencing, combined with underpasses or overpasses as appropriate. Herd reduction is controversial but can be effective. Deer whistles appear useless. Roadside reflectors appear to have little long-term effect, although additional well-designed evaluations are needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. Both temporary passive signs and active signs appear promising in specific situations, but considerable research is required to evaluate long-term driver response and to improve and test deer detection technology for active signs. Other methods using advanced technology require substantial additional research and evaluation.
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Graduated driver licensing research in 2003 and beyond
Hedlund, James H.; Compton, Richard P.
Journal of Safety Research
March 2004
This paper updates the comprehensive summary of graduated driver licensing (GDL) published in the January 2003 special issue of the Journal of Safety Research. It summarizes recent research not included in the special issue as well as research in progress or planned research. The most active research areas are risk factors for beginning teen drivers and evaluations of GDL programs. Results in each area strengthen the case for GDL. Additional research is producing valuable information about specific GDL implementation issues and the roles of parents and driver education in helping teenagers learn to drive safely.
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Graduated licensing in the United States
Williams, Allan F.
ITE Journal
September 2003
A major change is taking place in the United States to address the younger driver problem, namely the introduction of a licensing system that mandates an extended period of supervised driving and an intermediate licensing stage with restrictions on high-risk unsupervised driving, prior to full-privilege licensing. This represents a radical shift from the minimal licensing requirements that previously existed in most states and is expected to result in significant reductions in the young driver problem.
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Specific and long-term effects of Nova Scotia’s graduated licensing program
Mayhew, Daniel R.; Simpson, Herbert M.; Williams, Allan F.; Desmond, Katharine J.
Traffic Injury Prevention (TIP)
June 2003
A graduated licensing (GL) program was introduced in Nova Scotia, Canada, in October 1994. Previous research has shown that it reduced collisions in the short term. The present study examined the relative contribution of each stage of the program (i.e., learner and intermediate levels) and the program's impact after beginning drivers graduated to full licensure. The research focused on teenage beginning drivers (age 16-17), but the effects on older beginners also was examined. Per-driver crash rates of two groups of novices selected from driver records in Nova Scotia were compared. One group (pre-GL) received their learner's permits during the 2 years before the program was implemented, and the second group (GL) received their learner's permits during the 2 years after implementation. The findings clearly establish that most of the collision reduction in Nova Scotia's program occurred during the first year of the program, particularly during the first 6 months when the majority of novices were driving under supervision. The collision rate for 16 to 17-year-old GL novices was 50% lower than the rate for pre-GL novices during the 6 months after they received their learner's permits, and about 10% lower during their first 2 years of licensure when unsupervised driving from midnight to 5 A.M. was prohibited. Much of this improvement for 16 to 17-year-olds occurred during restricted night hours. Collision rates also were lower during nonrestricted hours in the initial 6 months of licensure. The 3-month "time discount" for driver education provided no safety benefit, and GL novices with driver education had collision rates that were not lower than pre-GL novices. There was no long-term effect found for the program after 16 to 17-year-olds graduated to full licensure. For older beginning drivers, crash rates during the first year after obtaining a learner's permit showed a 31% reduction. This effect diminished rapidly. There was only a 2% reduction during the first year of licensure, and crash rates increased during the following 2 years. Overall the data indicate substantial benefits of graduated licensing for 16 to 17-year-old beginners, but no benefits beyond the learner stage for older beginners.
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Other high-risk factors for young drivers -- how graduated licensing does, doesn't, or could address them
Ferguson, Susan A.
Journal of Safety Research
January 2003
Problem: Young drivers, particularly those who are newly licensed, have a very high crash risk. This paper examines the risk factors underlying their high crash rates and assesses the extent to which existing graduated licensing programs address these risks and whether improvements to these programs should be considered.
Method: Review and synthesis of the literature.
Results: The elevated risk among young drivers of being in an injury crash is the result of a number of factors found alone or in combination, such as risky driving, alcohol use, seat belt nonuse, driver distraction, fatigue, and vehicle choice. Nighttime and passenger restrictions, adopted widely in the United States, work by keeping drivers out of hazardous situations rather than by addressing risk factors directly. However, the risk factors remain in play in driving situations not specifically restricted by law. Although other graduated licensing components adopted around the world—more stringent exit tests (i.e., you need to pass a test to move to the next stage), hazard perception tests, and restrictions on speed, vehicle power, and roadway access—make sense based on the identified risk factors, they are not yet supported by research. Should research findings warrant it, consideration should be given to providing guidance to parents about how to keep their beginning drivers safe, including information on vehicle choice.
Impact: Researchers should continue to monitor and to evaluate innovative approaches to reduce the crash risk of young drivers. The effectiveness of new approaches should be established before adoption on a wider scale takes place.
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The compelling case for graduated licensing
Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
January 2003
What we know about graduated licensing is encouraging. The systems that have been evaluated have been found to be very effective in reducing crashes and injuries, and public acceptance is high. This in and of itself provides the compelling case for graduated licensing. Yet, the symposium clearly revealed that the full potential of graduated licensing is nowhere near being realized. In concept, graduated licensing is simple and appealing. It is a way of managing initial on-road driving experience, prescribing this experience in lower risk settings to protect beginners while they learn. What is needed to make graduated licensing succeed are restrictions on high-risk driving that are of sufficient strength and length and high compliance with the restrictions.
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An assessment of graduated licensing legislation
Williams, Allan F.
Proceedings of the 47th Annual Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine
2003
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Responses of teenagers and their parents to California’s graduated licensing system
Williams, Allan F.; Nelson, Laurie A.; Leaf, William A.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
September 2002
In 1998, California adopted a strong graduated licensing system that lengthened the learner's permit stage from 1 month to a mandatory 6 months and introduced passenger and nighttime restrictions for initial license holders. The passenger restriction (no passengers younger than 20 for the first 6 months) is stronger than such restrictions in any other state; the nighttime ban is relatively weak, not beginning until midnight. Surveys were undertaken to learn what teenagers and their parents thought about the new requirements and how they responded to them. Two groups of beginning California license holders were surveyed three times during the first year of licensure; their parents were interviewed twice. One group (n = 543) was subject to the graduated licensing requirements, the other (n = 814) was not. Parents strongly endorsed the new system. The vast majority approved of the new permit requirements and the nighttime and passenger restrictions. Among parents whose children were subject to the new requirements, 79% were strongly in favor of the new system and only 4% were neutral or opposed. Teenagers were less favorable toward the new requirements. Most approved of the new learner's permit rules, and the majority of teenagers favored the night restriction, but only about one-third endorsed the passenger restriction. Compliance with the new rules was not close to universal, but the new licensing system resulted in young people holding their learner's permits longer, accumulating more practice driving prior to licensure and decreased the amount of reported driving after midnight and transportation of teenagers when initially licensed. Most teenagers subject to the new rules said they were able to do the activities they wanted despite the changes; almost three-quarters said they were not affected much by either the nighttime or passenger restriction. Overall the results indicate that the new licensing system is accepted favorably by teenagers and their parents and has substantially increased the types of behaviors that collectively should lead to crash and injury reductions.
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Rationale for graduated licensing and the risks it should address
Williams, Allan F.; Ferguson, Susan A.
Injury Prevention
September 2002
The increased crash risk of young, beginning drivers has long been cause for concern. Graduated licensing systems, which seek to phase in driving experience gradually over time, have recently been adopted by many states in an effort to reduce these risks. In an attempt to define the basic rationale for graduated licensing, relevant research evidence that describes the conditions under which risk is known to be increased for young drivers was reviewed. Potential changes in licensing laws that best address these known risk factors are described. It was found that certain situations contribute to even greater crash risk, most notably nighttime driving and driving with passengers in the peer group. The underlying premise for graduated licensing is that while crash risk of young drivers is heightened under all situations, some situations are more or less risky than others. If experience can be gained initially under lower risk conditions, both in the learning stage and when first licensed, crash risk will be reduced.
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Graduated licensing for teens: why everybody’s doing it
Branche, Christine; Williams, Allan F.; Feldman, DeDe
The Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics
Fall 2002
While the United States traditionally has allowed quick and easy paths to full-privilege licensure of drivers at an early age, graduated licensing is becoming increasingly popular. The graduated licensing system phases in unrestricted driving by allowing beginners to get their initial behind-the-wheel experiences under conditions that reduce the risk of collision. As of June 2002, 35 states and the District of Columbia had enacted some sort of graduated licensing law. Recent evaluations of graduated licensing systems in four states have found reductions in crashes among 16-year-old drivers ranging from 11 to 33 percent. Yet, not all states have such laws, and many of the graduated licensing systems in use lack important provisions, such as nighttime driving and passenger restrictions. This article reviews the rules, restrictions, and provisions of the graduated licensing model; discusses evaluations of graduated licensing systems; identifies and analyzes variations in graduated licensing approaches across states; assesses the successes and failures of early graduated licensing laws, using New Mexico as an example; and discusses the potential of these systems to prevent injuries.
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Views of parents of teenagers about graduated licensing after experience with the laws
Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.; Leaf, William A.; Preusser, David F.; Farmer, Charles M.
Journal of Crash Prevention and Injury Control
October 2001
Parents of 15 year-olds in Florida and Connecticut were first interviewed in 1996 about their views concerning new licensing requirements in their states. Connecticut had introduced a 6-month learner’s permit requirement, effectively increasing the licensing age from 16 years to 16 years, 6 months (16 years, 4 months with driver education). Florida enacted a 6-month learner’s permit period plus a night driving restriction for 16 and 17 year-olds. In 1996, parents were very supportive of the new requirements, particularly the minimum permit period and nighttime restrictions, even though they recognized they would be inconvenienced to some extent. The same parents were interviewed again in 1999, after most of their teenagers had obtained driver’s licenses, and were even more supportive than before of the additional restrictions. Few parents reported that the laws inconvenienced them, and less than 20 percent said the laws had made it harder for their teenagers to get jobs. Furthermore, many were in favor of additional requirements, such as teenage passenger restrictions, not currently part of their states’ laws. These findings should encourage other states to proceed with graduated licensing systems or to augment systems already in place.
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Impact of the graduated licensing program in Nova Scotia
Mayhew, Daniel R.; Simpson, Herbert M.; des Groseilliers, Manon; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Crash Prevention and Injury Control
October 2001
New drivers, especially young ones, have extremely high crash rates. Contributing to this problem is the common practice of allowing a quick and easy path to unrestricted, full driving privileges. Many jurisdictions are considering a new form of licensing called "graduated licensing" to address this problem. The primary objective of this evaluation of the program in Nova Scotia, Canada, was to determine if there was a significant decrease in road crashes following the introduction of the graduated program. This study looked at drivers 16 and 17 years of age as well as all beginners regardless of age. The results of the study indicate that the graduated licensing program in Nova Scotia did significantly reduce the number of crashes and casualties. The program benefited not just young drivers but for all new drivers there was a 19% decrease in the collision rate.
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The rationale for graduated licensing
Williams, Allan F.
Second International Young Drivers Conference
October 2001
The majority of jurisdictions in Canada and the United States has adopted graduated licensing systems since the mid-1990s. Graduated licensing requires that progression to full-privilege licensure occurs in stages. The defining feature of North American-style graduated licensing is that some types of driving are restricted during the initial license stage, as well as in the learner stage. The rationale for graduated licensing is to permit beginners to acquire their initial on-road driving experience under conditions of lower risk. Previous licensing systems generally allowed a quick and easy path to full-privilege licensure at a young age, resulting in extremely high crash rates for young beginners. Although the systems now in place in North America vary widely, typically there is a required supervised learner stage of 6 months or more, followed by an intermediate license stage of at least several months with restrictions on high risk driving. Unsupervised late-night recreational driving is usually restricted, and some jurisdictions restrict carrying passengers; both of these activities elevate the already high crash risk of young drivers. Research in North America, Australia, and Europe has shown that for young novices, the first few months of licensure entail the highest crash risk, with the risk highest immediately after licensure. The high crash rate of novice drivers in the first months after they are licensed suggests that prelicensing policies can only do so much, and that restricting driving in situations . known to be especially high risk during this short postlicensure period is one option for dealing with this vulnerability.
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Effects of Florida's graduated licensing program on the behaviors and attitudes of teenagers
McCartt, Anne T.; Leaf, William A.; Farmer, Charles M.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
Summer 2001
On July 1, 1996, the state of Florida implemented a graduated licensing system for drivers under the age of 18. The system included a 6-month learner's permit and nighttime driving restriction, and made it easier to suspend the license for moving violations. Florida also instituted, on January 1, 1997, a zero tolerance law for drinking and driving for drivers under 21. The aim of this study was to measure changes in teenagers' behaviors and attitudes following adoption of graduated licensing. A self-administered survey was given in the Fall of 1996 and again in the Fall of 1998 to juniors and seniors from 8 high schools selected through a multistage sampling process. Differences between the 1996 and 1998 responses were examined. Results and conclusions are presented indicating that positive changes in teenagers' behaviors and attitudes were associated with the implementation of the graduated licensing system.
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Potential benefits of restrictions on the transport of teenage passengers by 16 and 17 year old drivers
Chen, Li-Hui; Braver, Elisa R.; Baker, Susan P.; Li, Guohua
Injury Prevention
June 2001
Objectives—The presence of passengers is associated with fatal motor vehicle crashes of teenage drivers. A restriction against newly licensed teenage drivers carrying passengers has been included in some, but not all, graduated licensing systems. The purpose of this study was to predict the net effects on all types of road users, including vehicle occupants and non-occupants, of possible prohibitions against 16–17 year old drivers carrying passengers. Methods—Two national datasets, a census of fatal crashes and a sample of trips in the United States, were used to compute 1995 road user death rates. Potential effects of restrictions on drivers ages 16–17 carrying passengers younger than 20 were estimated, based on road user death rates and potential choices made by passengers who would have traveled with 16–17 year old drivers if there were no restrictions. Results—There were 1181 road user deaths in 1995 involving drivers ages 16–17 whose passengers were all younger than age 20. The predicted number of lives in the United States that would be saved annually ranges from 83 to 493 (corresponding to reductions of 7–42% in road user deaths) for drivers ages 16 and 17 combined. Similar percentages of reductions (8–44%) were predicted solely for 16 year old drivers. Assuming passenger restrictions would apply to all 16 year old drivers and at least one third of 17 year old drivers, an estimated 60–344 fewer deaths per year may occur if restrictions are mandated. Conclusions—Restrictions on carrying passengers younger than 20 should be considered for inclusion in graduated licensing systems. Even if fewer than half the drivers obey the restrictions, a substantial reduction in road user deaths would be expected. Further evaluation based on real world experience is needed to confirm their efficacy.
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Teenage crash reduction associated with delayed licensure in Connecticut
Ulmer, Robert G.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.; Preusser, David F.
Journal of Safety Research
Spring 2001
Problem: On January 1, 1997, Connecticut implemented the first phase of graduated licensing requiring 16- and 17-year-olds to hold a learner's permit for 6 months (4 months with driver's education) prior to licensure. The effect of this change was to raise the minimum licensing age in Connecticut by 6 months (or 4 months) during which time a young person could obtain supervised practice driving.
Method: Crash rates for 16- to 18-year-olds in Connecticut, before and after the change, were compared with crash rates in nearby counties in New York State.
Results: Fatal/injury crash involvements of Connecticut 16-year-old drivers declined by 22% during the first full year following the law change. Declines did not vary significantly between males and females or as a function of the income level of the city/town in which the crash occurred. Fatal/injury crash involvements for 17- and 18-year-olds in Connecticut and 16-, 17-, and 18-year-olds in New York did not change significantly.
Discussion: Companion surveys of parents conducted before and after their teen was licensed showed support for the law change and support for additional provisions generally associated with “graduated licensing.”
Summary: Delaying teenage licensure in Connecticut, during which time a teen could engage in more practice driving, was associated with a 22% reduction in fatal/injury crash involvements for 16-year-old drivers.
Impact on industry:Crash reduction will be related to a reduction in overall highway loss including medical costs, property damage, and lost work time.
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Why 16?
Mayhew, Daniel R.; Fields, Michele; Simpson, Herbert M.
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
August 2000
The age at which a teenager may obtain a license to drive is reasonably uniform across North America -- most jurisdictions license at age 16. However, there has been a recent trend toward modifying the age of full licensure with the adoption of a new system called graduated licensing, which involves a phased entry to full licensure. This trend raises the question of why minimum licensing ages were introduced in the first place and, perhaps more importantly, why particular ages were selected. This study examines the origins of, and rationale for, minimum driver licensing age laws. Findings suggest that the introduction of age restrictions at the beginning of the 20th century was motivated largely by efforts to protect the public from young drivers, who increasingly were being recognized as a problem on the highways, as well as to protect adolescents and prepare them for adulthood. However, there was no consensus regarding the optimum age for licensing. Age determination in driver licensing essentially was arbitrary; some states selected 16, while others selected 18. By the mid-to-late 1920s, the need for uniformity in the control and regulation of drivers emerged as a critical issue in the United States, and 16 became the recommended legal age. Since then, a minimum licensing age of 16 has become the norm in the United States.
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Variations in teenage activities with and without a driver's license
Preusser, David F.; Leaf, William A.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Public Health Policy
Summer 2000
High school students were surveyed every 6 months from their freshman through senior years concerning licensing, driving, and transportation to and from their various activities. Students in Delaware (learner's permit can be issued at age 15 years, 10 months; driver's license at age 16) were compared with students in Connecticut and New York (permit at age 16; license at age 16) and in New Jersey (license at age 17). During the junior year, most Delaware students, some New York and Connecticut students, and few New Jersey students were licensed. However, even during the junior year, students in the respective states did not differ significantly with respect to time spent at activities such as a paying job, homework, watching television, dating, parties, being with friends, talking on the phone, or participating in sports or school activities. Graduated licensing systems can delay full-privilege teenage licensure and reduce teenage crash rates. These systems also can increase the number of times parents and others must drive. However, the present study's results indicate that licensing delays of as much as 1 year have minimal effects on the nondriving activities of high school students.
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Effect of Florida's graduated licensing program on the crash rate of teenage drivers
Ulmer, Robert G.; Preusser, David F.; Williams, Allan F.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Farmer, Charles M.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
Summer 2000
On 1 July 1996, Florida instituted a graduated licensing program for drivers younger than age 18. For the first 3 months, holders of learner's licenses are not allowed to drive at all between 19:00 and 06:00 h; thereafter, they may drive until 22:00 h. Learner's licenses must be held for 6 months prior to eligibility for the intermediate license. Sixteen-year-old intermediate license holders are not permitted to drive unsupervised from 23:00 to 06:00 h, 17 year-olds from 01:00 to 06:00 h. All drivers younger than 18 have strict limits on the number of traffic violations they can accumulate and, effective 1 January 1997, all drivers younger than 21 are subject to a zero tolerance law for drinking and driving. Florida crash data for 1995-1997 were obtained and compared with similar data from Alabama, a state that borders Florida but does not have graduated licensing. For 15, 16, and 17 year-olds combined, there was a 9% reduction in the fatal and injury crash involvement rate in Florida during 1997, the first full year of graduated licensing, compared with 1995. On a percentage basis, crashes declined most among 15 year-olds, followed by 16 year-olds and then 17 year-olds. Reductions were not seen among Alabama teenagers nor among 18 year-olds in Florida.
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Graduated licensing in the United States
Williams, Allan F.
Proceedings of the 65th Road Safety Congress--Around the World in 2½ Days: Lessons for the UK?
2000
A major change is taking place in the United States to address the younger driver problem, namely the introduction of a licensing system that mandates an extended period of supervised driving and an intermediate licensing stage with restrictions on high-risk unsupervised driving, prior to full-privilege licensing. This represents a radical shift from the minimal licensing requirements that previously existed in most states and is expected to result in significant reductions in the young driver problem.
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North America’s approach to the young driver problem
Williams, Allan F.
Novice Drivers Conference Proceedings
2000
This paper, on the use of graduated licensing in the USA and Canada, supplements the information presented in another paper by the author (ITRD E108391). It additionally discusses the rationale for the UK and other countries for adopting this approach.
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The effects of learner's permit requirements in Tennessee
Preusser, David F.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
Winter 1999
A total of 1,535 surveys in 1995 and 1,084 surveys in 1996-1997 were completed at motor-vehicle offices in Tennessee after the respondents had qualified for their first driver's license. Surveys from drivers aged 16-17 (1,179 in 1995 and 812 in 1996-1997) were analyzed separately from new drivers aged 18 and older (356 in 1995 and 272 in 1996-1997). When the survey was conducted during October and November 1995, neither a learner's permit nor completion of a driver education course was required to obtain a license at age 16 or 17. The survey was repeated during December 1996 and January 1997, approximately one year after a requirement to hold a learner's permit for 90 days or complete a driver education course was implemented. Results indicated that Tennessee's licensing law change was associated with approximately 100 additional miles (161 km) and 8 additional hours of practice driving prior to licensure for the typical 16- or 17-year-old, most often while supervised by a parent or guardian. Results are discussed in relation to the prelicense practice driving requirements of graduated licensing systems.
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Graduated licensing comes to the United States
Williams, Allan F.
Injury Prevention
June 1999
Objective: To describe the young driver problem and the emergence of graduated licensing as a way to address it.
Methods: Literature review and commentary.
Results: Twenty-four states in the United States adopted versions of graduated licensing in 1996-98; initial results show positive effects.
Conclusions: A major public health movement is under way that can be expected to produce significant reductions in crashes and injuries involving young drivers.
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Teenage crash reduction associated with delayed licensure in Louisiana
Ulmer, Robert G.; Preusser, David F.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
Spring 1999
Effective July 1, 1993, Louisiana added a provision to its driver licensing law that requires 15-year-olds to complete 36 hours of driver education before they obtain driver’s licenses. The subsequent crash experience of 15-year-olds in Louisiana was compared with that of 15-year-olds in Mississippi, which at the time of this study licensed at age 15; and experience in north Florida, which licenses at age 16. The effect of the new requirement was a 33% reduction in the number of licenses issued to 15-year-olds during the first full year following the law change. The fatal and injury crash involvements of Louisiana 15-year-old drivers declined by as much as 20% annually in the two years following the law change. Involvement rates of older teenagers in Louisiana as well as Florida and Mississippi remained unchanged or increased during the same time period. Louisiana’s night driving restrictions—applicable to drivers younger than age 17 and shown to be effective in previous research—were even more effective after the law change. Fatal and injury crash involvements during the restricted hours for 15- and 16-year-olds were, respectively, 51% and 27% lower than estimated involvements if the night driving restriction had not been in effect. The results of this study provide additional evidence that elements of graduated licensing systems, such as delaying the age of full licensure and night driving restrictions, are effective in reducing the very high rate of teenage involvements in serious motor-vehicle crashes.
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Licensing policies for young drivers in the United States
Williams, Allan F.
Automobile Insurance: Road Safety, New Drivers, Risks, Insurance Fraud, and Regulation
1999
Although there is a substantial variation in licensing policies in the United States, most states offer easy licensing at an early age. These policies have been associated with very high crash rates for young people, particularly 16 and 17-years-olds. A major shift in licensing regulations is now underway, with graduated licensing systems beginning to be introduced. In graduated licensing, on-road-driving is encouraged but in lower-risk sistuations before full priviledges are granted. In 1996, several states enacted graduated licensing provisions, and more are expected to do so in 1997. Provisions of graduated licensing such as night driving curfews for initial license holders are the subject of considerable debate, as states struggle with setting the appropriate balance between mobility for young people and safety. Parents of teenagers are among the strongest supporters of graduated licensing.
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Graduated licensing in Ontario: a survey of parents
Mayhew, Daniel R.; Simpson, Herbert M.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Traffic Medicine
1999
Several countries have introduced graduated licensing systems to address the problem of young driver crashes. The study examines how parents in Ontario, Canada have responded to the graduated licensing program implemented in 1994. 520 parents with teenagers are in the program; the survey obtained information on parents' knowledge of the program, extent to which their children comply with the program's restrictions, and attitudes toward the overall program and its restrictions.
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Teenage driver licensure rates in four states
Preusser, David F.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.; Leaf, William A.; Farmer, Charles M.
Journal of Safety Research
Summer 1998
High school students in four states were surveyed every six months from their freshmen through senior years. Delaware students could obtain learner’s permits beginning at age 15 years and 10 months and licenses at age 16. Connecticut and New York students could begin learning driving and become licensed at age 16, but New Jersey students could not get their licenses until age 17. Comparisons among states indicated the age at which teenagers first drive on public roads, obtain learner’s permits, and obtain licenses is younger for Delaware students compared with students living in the other states. Comparisons within states indicated students with higher grade point averages and living with both parents, of whom at least one was college educated, were more likely to become licensed at younger ages. The importance of these intrastate personal and family variables was greatest in Connecticut, which allowed a home study option for teaching young people to drive. Implications of these findings for graduated licensing systems, currently being considered by several states, are discussed.
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Graduated licensing in Nova Scotia: a survey of teenagers and parents
Mayhew, Daniel R.; Simpson, Herbert M.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Traffic Medicine
May 1998
Several jurisdictions in North America and elsewhere have introduced graduated licensing. It targets both the experience- and age-related factors that render young drivers at high risk of collision by imposing a set of restrictions on beginning drivers. The graduated licensing program implemented in Nova Scotia, Canada in October 1994 provided an opportunity to assess how teenagers as well as their parents have reacted to it. The study involved telephone interviews with 450 teenagers ages 16-18 to obtain information on their knowledge about the graduated licensing system, their attitudes toward it, and the level of support for and compliance with its restrictions. Parents and many teenagers endorse the graduated licensing program. In addition, the level of knowledge about the system is relatively high, attitudes toward it are favorable, and reported compliance with it is reasonably widespread. These results have relevance for policymakers and licensing authorities who are considering graduated licensing programs as well as those who already have such programs and are considering improvements.
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Views of parents of teenagers about graduated licensing systems
Williams, Allan F.; Ferguson, Susan A.; Leaf, William A.; Preusser, David F.
Journal of Safety Research
Spring 1998
Several states enacted elements of graduated licensing systems in 1996. Connecticut introduced a six-month required learner’s permit period. Florida enacted a six-month learner’s period plus a night driving curfew for 16- and 17-year-olds. Parents of 15-year-olds in these states were surveyed to determine their views concerning the new requirements. Parents of graduating seniors in Connecticut and three other northeastern states also were surveyed. Results indicate that, in all six populations, support for graduated licensing was strong. Parents of 15-year-olds in Connecticut and Florida endorsed their new licensing systems, even though there was recognition that they and their children would be inconvenienced to some extent, and many wanted even tougher licensing provisions. Eighty-two percent of Connecticut parents of 15-year-olds thought there should be a night driving curfew for initial license holders, a provision that had been considered but was rejected.
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Earning a driver's license
Williams, Allan F.
Public Health Reports
November/December 1997
Teenage drivers in the United States have greatly elevated crash rates, primarily a result of qualities associated with immaturity and lack of driving experience. State licensing systems vary substantially, but most have allowed quick and easy access to driving with full privileges at a young age, contributing to the crash problem. Formal driver education has not been an effective crash prevention measure. Following the introduction of graduated licensing in New Zealand, Australia, and Canada, this system has been considered in many states and has been implemented in some. Graduated systems phase in full privilege driving, requiring initial experience to be gained under conditions of lower risk. The author describes the first five multistage graduated systems enacted in the United States in 1996 and 1997. Factors that will influence the acceptability and effectiveness of these new licensing systems are discussed.
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Night driving restrictions for youthful drivers: a literature review and commentary
Williams, Allan F.; Preusser, David F.
Journal of Public Health Policy
1997
The research literature on night driving curfews is reviewed. Driving at night involves high risk, particularly for young beginners. Although only about 15 percent of the total miles of 16-17-year-old drivers occur between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m., about 40 percent of their fatal crashes take place during these hours. Curfews that limit recreational driving at night without an adult have been found to substantially reduce nighttime crashes. Parents of teenagers strongly endorse curfews and favor earlier starting times than prevail in most jurisdictions with curfews. A night driving curfew is an essential component of graduated licensing, a system that phases in young beginners to full-privilege licensure, limiting initial driving to lower-risk situations.
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Night driving curfews for young drivers
Williams, Allan F.; Preusser, David F.
Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs, and Traffic Safety
1997
This paper discusses the use of night driving curfews in New Zealand and parts of the United States. Statistics show that nighttime driving is particularly hazardous for young new drivers. A variety of schemes are described which prevent young drivers driving between certain hours or at certain stages in their driving experience. The results are presented of surveys concerning the opinions of young people and their parents on the concept of curfews.
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Graduated licensing and other approaches to controlling young driver risk taking
Williams, Allan F.
Risk-Taking Behavior and Traffic Safety Symposium Proceedings
1997
Adolescents are more likely than older people to engage in risky driving practices, and some young people are particularly prone to risky driving. Young beginners combine risky driving practices with driving inexperience, greatly heightening crash risk. The young driver problem is acute in the United States because licensure is allowed at very young ages, and the path to full driving privileges is quick and easy. Risky driving is tied to developmental and lifestyle factors and is difficult to change. The traditional approaches of driver education and penalty-based licensing systems have not worked adequately. Graduated licensing systems now are being considered by many states and have been adopted by some. These systems do not address risk factors directly but are structured to provide beginners the opportunity to gain initial on-road experience outside of situations that have more driving difiiculty and therefore more risk and/or that encourage risk taking. Graduates are older and on their way to maturing out of risky driving tendencies, and they will have accumulated important driving experience under protected conditions. The intitial graduated systems adopted in the United Sates vary substantially in their features. It will be important to evaluate the effect of these systems in reducing young driver crashes and to determine which set of provisions is optimal in terms of both acceptability and effectiveness.
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Protecting new drivers: 10 components of graduating licensing that make sense
Williams, Allan F.
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
December 1996
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Parents' views of licensing practices in Connecticut
Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
June 1996
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How we license in the United States--paths to licensure
Ferguson, Susan A.
Transportation Research Circular 458
April 1996
This paper examines state licensing requirements and how they differ from a typical graduated licensing system. The relevant portions of the licensing sections of the motor vehicle codes for the 50 states and the District of Columbia were reviewed and data were collected on the requirements for learner's permits and driver's licenses. Representatives of the motor vehicle departments in each state were interviewed to confirm information contained in the laws and to discover other relevant information not available from the statutes. Each state's driver manual was also reviewed. Of particular interest were whether a learner's permit is required prior to licensure and if the permit is required, whether it had to be held for a minimum period before applying for a license, and if so for how long. Also of interest were the prerequisites for obtaining a learner's permit, the earliest age at which a permit could be obtained, and the term for which the permit is valid. Prerequisites for licensure and the earliest age at which a license could be obtained were also noted.
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Regular licensing conditions for young drivers
Williams, Allan F.
Young Drivers: Reports of the First Interdisciplinary Conference
March 1996
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Differences in young driver crash involvement in states with varying licensure practices
Ferguson, Susan A.; Leaf, William A.; Williams, Allan F.; Preusser, David F.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
1996
Teenage driver licensing practices and the crashes of teenagers were compared in several states with differing laws and policies regarding licensure. High school seniors in Delaware, a state with laws that allow early driving and licensure, reported that they first drove on a public road, obtained a learner's permit and obtained a driver's license at younger ages than high school seniors in other northeastern states (Connecticut, New Jersey and upstate New York). State crash data indicated that Delaware and Connecticut, which allow unrestricted licensing at age 16, showed the highest rates of 16-year-old driver involvements in nonfatal and fatal injury crashes. Pennsylvania and upstate New York, which have night driving curfews for 16 year-olds, showed lower crash rates overall and much lower crash rates during their respective curfew hours. New Jersey and Nassau and Suffolk counties, where unsupervised driving by 16 year-olds is generally not allowed, showed the lowest crash rates for 16 year-olds. Graduated licensing programs that include delayed full-privilege licensure, night driving curfews, and extended periods of supervised practice driving are a possible countermeasure for the high motor vehicle crash rates of young drivers.
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Parents' views of driver licensing practices in the United States
Ferguson, Susan A.; Williams, Allan F.
Journal of Safety Research
1996
Parents of 17-year-olds were interviewed about the licensing experiences of their sons and daughters. A nationally representative sample of 1,000 parents were asked about the path to licensure of their children, and about their participation in the process. Parents were asked about their opinion of the licensing practices in their own states and about their support for additional driving restrictions on novice drivers. The majority (86%) said their children already had licenses, and 81% of parents thought their sons and daughters were ready when first licensed to drive under most conditions. Over half were satisfied with the licensing process in their own state, but a sizable minority (25%) reported that states were not doing such a good job with the existing requirements. Forty-one percent of parents surveyed thought that it should be more difficult to obtain a license. Parents overwhelmingly supported restrictions for beginning drivers such as a minimum period of supervised driving, night driving curfews, restrictions on the number of teenage passengers in the car, and a zero blood alcohol concentration for teenage drivers. Graduated licensing programs that include delayed full-privilege licensure were supported by 58% of those surveyed.
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Current requirements for getting a drivers license in the United States
Williams, Allan F.; Weinberg, Karen; Fields, Michele; Ferguson, Susan A.
Journal of Safety Research
1996
In the United States there are few restrictions on where, when, and with whom young people can drive once licensed, and thus the learning period prior to licensing is important. An assessment was made of the requirements for obtaining a license in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. There is substantial variation in prelicensure requirements, and many jurisdictions allow a quick and easy route through the learning phase. Only 30 jurisdictions require that a learner's permit be obtained; only 11 of these require the permit to be held for a minimum period, ranging from 14 to 90 days. Driver education prior to licensure is required in 26 states. Fourteen states have neither permit nor driver education requirements. Requiring supervised learner's permit periods of several months is one method to encourage sufficient supervised driving experience prior to licensure, and it is an essential component of a graduated licensing system.
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Graduated licensing systems for young drivers
Williams, Allan F.
Where We Go From Here, A Pacific Northwest Regional Symposium On Reducing Motor Vehicle-Related Injury
1996
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Characteristics of fatal crashes of 16-year-old drivers: implications for licensure policies
Williams, Allan F.; Preusser, David F.; Ulmer, Robert G.; Weinstein, Helen B.
Journal of Public Health Policy
1995
Compared with older drivers, and even older teens, greater percentages of 16-year-old drivers in fatal crashes were involved in single-vehicle crashes, were responsible for their crashes, were cited for speeding, had high vehicle occupancy (especially other teenagers), and were female. Sixteen-year-olds were less likely than older drivers to have been drinking. In addition, their crashes occurred at different times than those of older drivers, crashes between 10:00 p.m. and 11:59 p.m. on Fridays and Saturdays being especially likely. Information about the characteristics of the crashes of 16-year-olds is important because this is the age at which most states currently allow teenagers to get an unrestricted driver's license. It is also the age at which restrictions on beginning licenses are being considered in some states. The results of this study suggest that restrictions on teenage passengers, and night-driving curfews with pre-midnight starting times--two provisions used in New Zealand's graduated licensing system--would be appropriate in attempts to reduce crashes of beginning 16-year-old drivers, who have the highest fatal crash rate of any single teen age.
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The case for and strategies to implement graduated licensing in the United States
Williams, Allan F.; Sweedler, Barry M.
Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety
1995
Each year in the United States more than 8,000 persons die in traffic crashes in which the driver is between the ages of 15-20 years. Young drivers are over-represented in traffic crashes and deaths. Thus, they continue to be a major traffic safety concern. Drivers aged 15-20 years comprised only 7.1 percent of licensed drivers, but accounted for 14.9 percent of all driver fatalities. Further, while young drivers do only 20 percent of their driving at night, over half the crash fatalities of adolescent drivers occur during night time hours. First-year drivers (primarily ages 16 and 17) have twice the average number of crashes and, on a miles-driven basis, four times the number of crashes involving more experienced drivers. One of the concepts suggested to address this problem is the establishing of a graduated licensing system in conjunction with night time driving restrictions for young novice drivers. This paper discusses the key elements of a graduated licensing system, the research evidence that supports it and the proposals, strategies and plans to bring about the implementation of these programs in each of the 30 US states.
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Teenage driving practices and licensing laws: differences in four states
Ferguson, Susan A.; Leaf, William A.; Preusser, David F.; Williams, Allan F.
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
April 1994
A survey of high school seniors was conducted in four contiguous northeastern states with substantially different laws regulating the ages at which teenagers can learn to drive and obtain a license. The age at which these students first drove on a public road tended to be younger (often much younger than the legal minimum age for practice driving) when state law allowed practice driving and licensing at younger ages. It was also younger for males, for teenagers with poorer school grades, and for those whose parents had less formal education. The age at which these students obtained a learners permit and became licensed tended to be younger in states that allowed practice driving and licensing at younger ages, for teenagers in suburban or rural, as opposed to urban, communities, for those with better school grades, and for those whose parents had more formal education. Graduated licensing systems, which allow young drivers to be exposed gradually to increasingly complex driving environments, are one method for limiting teenage motor vehicle crash exposure. State laws and regulations that delay the age at which practice driving is permitted, provide learners permits that are valid for long periods of time, and establish a higher minimum licensing age can be used to limit teenage motor vehicle crashes.
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The effect of city curfew ordinances on teenage motor vehicle fatalities
Preusser, David F.; Zador, Paul L.; Williams, Allan F.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
1993
Of 149 large cities surveyed, 72 were found to have nighttime curfew ordinances applying to teenagers of various ages. The typical city curfew identified starts at midnight, ends at 5 a.m., and affects all activity of teenagers ages 13–17 in a public place and unaccompanied by a parent. In comparisons of 47 cities with curfews covering 13- to 17-year-olds and 77 cities without curfews, curfews were associated with a 23% reduction in fatal injury for 13- to 17-year-olds for the 9 p.m.–5:59 a.m. time period. This is identical to the 23% reduction estimated for both fatal and nonfatal motor vehicle injuries for 13- to 17-year-olds in an earlier, more limited study of curfews in Detroit, Cleveland, and Columbus, Ohio.
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City curfew ordinances and teenage motor vehicle injury
Preusser, David F.; Williams, Allan F.; Lund, Adrian K.; Zador, Paul L.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
February 1990
Several U.S. cities have curfew ordinances that limit the late night activities of minor teenagers in public places including highways. Detroit, Cleveland, and Columbus, which have curfew ordinances, were compared to Cincinnati, which does not have such an ordinance. The curfew ordinances were associated with a 23% reduction in motor vehicle related injury for 13- to 17-year-olds as passengers, drivers, pedestrians, or bicyclists during the curfew hours. It was concluded that city curfew ordinances, like the statewide driving curfews studied in other states, can reduce motor vehicle injury to teenagers during the particularly hazardous late night hours.
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Delaying teenage licensure
Preusser, David F.
Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving
1988
Summarizes a seven-state survey of transportation needs among 52,304 public high school students (aged 14–18 yrs) with and without driver's licenses. Results show that while most students wanted to become licensed as soon as they could, the rate of licensure between states was extremely variable. Students from states where teenagers could obtain licenses at an earlier age reported more driving, risky driving, and crashes and violations compared with students in states with a later licensing age. Delayed licensure and limited-privilege licenses for 15–27 year-olds are seen as effective approaches for limiting teen driving exposure, risky driving, and crash involvements.
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Licensing decisions of teenagers
Lund, Adrian K.; Preusser, David F.; Williams, Allan F.
Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving
1987
A survey of high school students in seven states found that teenagers were very interested in getting their licenses as soon as possible, primarily to increase their independent mobility. Few teenagers could name important reasons for not getting licensed, although some identified high insurance costs, lack of their own car, and unavailability of driver education as deterrents to licensure. Teenagers in high schools where driver education was more readily available were licensed at earlier ages. Also, male students, those with higher grades, and those whose parents were better educated obtained driver licenses earlier than females, those with lower grades, or those whose parents were less well-educated. Licensure rates were particularly high following birthdays.
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Driving behavior of licensed and unlicensed teenagers
Williams, Allan F.; Lund, Adrian K.; Preusser, David F.
Journal of Public Health Policy
September 1985
A questionnaire survey of high school students in seven states was conducted in 1983 to determine teenagers' access to cars and their amount and type of driving. Considerable illegal driving was reported by unlicensed drivers, both those with learners permits and those without. Licensed drivers have ready access to cars with the majority owning one. In each area surveyed, more than one-third of the license holders reported that they usually drive to school; in Orange County, California, and rural Colorado, nearly two-thirds do so. One-third of male licensed drivers and 14% of the females said they drove more than 70 miles per hour once a week or more. One-quarter of male licensed drivers and 11% of the females said they drove after drinking once a week or more. More than 40% of males and females who had held licenses for at least two years reported having had one or more crashes. Earning lower average high school grades was associated with car ownership, high weekly mileage, speeding, driving after drinking, and having traffic tickets and crashes.
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Driver licensing age and lifestyles of 16 year olds
Preusser, David F.; Williams, Allan F.; Lund, Adrian K.
American Journal of Public Health
April 1985
The relationship of driver licensure rate differences to 16 year old lifestyles was assessed by surveying 15 and 16 year olds in New York, Michigan, and New Jersey. Michigan 16 year olds reported the highest rates of licensure (56 per cent), whereas New York (14 per cent licensed) and New Jersey (2 per cent licensed) had much lower rates. Teenagers in Michigan reported greater decreases in use of bicycles and reliance on parents and relatives for transportation but, for the most part, the differences in 16 year old licensure and mobility were not reflected in lifestyle differences.
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Teenage driving curfews: a market research study to determine teenagers' awareness of and attitudes toward driving curfews in four states (conducted for the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety)
Opinion Research Corporation
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
1985
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Night driving curfews in New York and Louisiana: results of a questionnaire survey
Williams, Allan F.; Lund, Adrian K.; Preusser, David F.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
1985
New York and Louisiana, two states having night driving curfews, were included in a questionnaire survey of high school students conducted in 1983. Most students in these states knew about their curfew law. In both states the majority of licensed drivers said they had violated the curfew, but the majority claimed to have violated the curfew no more than twice. Students do not believe that the police enforce curfew restrictions vigorously, but many parents require their children to obey the law. New York students were more knowledgeable than Louisiana students about the restrictions, and there was more evidence in New York than Louisiana of reduced driving resulting from the curfew. These findings are consistent with results of an earlier study that found curfews in both of these states reduced crashes but estimated crash reductions during curfew hours were greater in New York than in Louisiana.
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Teenage driver licensing in relation to state laws
Williams, Allan F.; Lund, Adrian K.; Preusser, David F.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
1985
Previous studies have shown that delaying licensure reduces motor vehicle injuries. This study examined the relationship between licensing laws and the timing of obtaining drivers licenses. The states studied have various laws, including minimum licensing ages of 15, 16 and 17: minimum learners permit ages of 15 and 16; and teenage night driving curfews. A questionnaire survey of 52,304 students was conducted in 75 high schools during the spring of 1983. The schools were selected from Orange County, California; rural Colorado; and most or all of Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi. New- Jersey and New York. The results indicated that the minimum age of licensure has obvious strong effects in delaying licensure. Setting the learners permit age later also apparently delays licensure. The night driving curfew in New York State (9 p.m.–5 a.m.) is seen by students as a factor in their decisions to delay obtaining licenses; Louisiana's 11 p.m.–5 a.m. curfew has a much smaller effect, if any.
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High school students' views of laws restricting teenage driving
Williams, Allan F.; Preusser, David F.; Lund, Adrian K.
Journal of Public Health Policy
September 1984
Substantial reductions in motor vehicle injuries can be achieved by raising the minimum licensing age or instituting night driving curfews for beginning drivers. A questionnaire survey of public high school students' views on restricting teenage driving was conducted in the following states: California, Colorado, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, and New York. The results indicated the following: (a) Slightly less than half felt there should be some restrictions on teenage driving. (b) The majority thought that restrictions on teenage drivers that did not apply to all drivers were bad, and slightly more favored a seat belt use law for all drivers rather than one applying to teenagers only. (c) In general, high school students preferred the age that they could obtain licenses in their own states as the minimum age for obtaining licenses, whether that age was 15, 16, or 17. (d) Teenagers in states with night driving curfews were more likely to favor curfew laws, but more than half of those in states without curfews expressed some support for such laws.
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The effect of curfew laws on motor vehicle crashes
Preusser, David F.; Williams, Allan F.; Zador, Paul L.; Blomberg, Richard D.
Law and Policy
1984
Twelve states in the U.S. have curfew laws, which prohibit young drivers from operating motor vehicles during late evening or early morning hours. The effect of such laws on motor vehicle crashes was studied in four of these states. In each state the laws were found substantially to reduce the crashes of sixteen year olds. Sixteen year old driver crash involvements during curfew hours were reduced by an estimated 69 percent in Pennsylvania, 62 percent in New York, 40 percent in Maryland, and 25 percent in Louisiana. Except in Maryland, the percentage of the sixteen year old population licensed was lower in curfew than comparison states. It is possible that curfew laws reduce early licensure, in which case reductions in crash involvements resulting from curfews are greater than shown above.
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Laws and regulations applicable to teenagers or new drivers: their potential for reducing motor vehicle injuries
Williams, Allan F.
Young Driver Accidents--In Search of Solutions
1983
Three law changes are known to be very effective in reducing motor vehicle injuries to teenagers and others involved in their crashes: raising the minimum age for purchasing alcoholic beverages, raising the minimum licensing age, and night driving curfews. Studies conducted in the United States have shown that raising the alcohol purchase age resulted in an average reduction of 28 percent in the involvement of teenage drivers in nighttime fatal crashes; that 65 to 85 percent reductions in 16 year old driver fatal crash involvement can be expected if the licensing age is increased from 16 to 17; and that laws prohibiting driving during late evening/early morning hours can reduce 16 year old driver crash involvements during those hours by more than 50 percent. Adoption of these laws in all states and provinces would substantially reduce motor vehicle injuries. Other laws and regulations that could reduce crash injuries are reviewed. These include seat belt and motorcycle helmet use laws for teenagers, provisional licensing systems, learner permit regulations, enforcement of motorcycle licensing laws, and setting the permissible blood alcohol concentration at lower levels for teenage drivers. The rationale for laws pertaining exclusively to teenagers, and arguments for and against such laws, are also discussed.
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Variations in minimum licensing age and fatal motor vehicle crashes
Williams, Allan F.; Karpf, Ronald S.; Zador, Paul L.
American Journal of Public Health
1983
The effect of differences in the legal minimum licensing age on fatal motor vehicle crashes was studied in New Jersey (age 17), Massachusetts (age 16 1/2), and Connecticut (age 16). New Jersey's 17-year-old licensing law was associated with greatly reduced fatal crash involvement. It is estimated that 65 to 85 per cent reductions in 16 year-old-driver fatal crash involvement can be expected if the licensing age is increased from 16 to 17 without increasing fatal crash rates at older ages.